Final Entry

After its defeat in World War I, both Austria's power and size were greatly reduced. The Nazi's occupied it throughout World War II, until the Allies came in and overthrew the Nazi regime. A State Treaty of 1955 ended the Allied occupation of Austria and forbid Austria and Germany to ever unify. The Soviets withdrew from the nation after Austria formally agreed to stay as a netural country. In 1995, Austria entered the European Union. It is a well-to-do, democratic area today. In 1999, Austria entered the European Union's Monetary Union. There was an internal riot in 2006 regarding the closing of a Czech nuclear power plant. There is a very high standard of living in Austria, and its economy is linked closely to that of Germany's. Trade with other areas of Europe, especially in south-eastern Europe, generates much wealth - mostly in banking. It is a great country to invest money in. To continue its status as a prosperous nation, Austria will have to keep up with new competitors, such as countries who have only recently joined the European Union.

After the Austrian-Hungarian empire faded after WWI, Hungary became its own nation. It unfortunately became Communist after World War II. When in 1956, Hungary proclaimed that it was withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact, the USSR became alarmed. A rebellion took place. In 1968, Kadar attempted to liberalize the economy. After the Communist USSR collapsed around 1990, free elections and free markets were introduced. Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and joined the European Union in the year 2004. Currently, there are frequent disputes between Hungary and Slovakia. When the nation first joined the EU, it was one of the poorest members; however, Hungary has made remarkable strides economically in recent years. The only concern international trade partners have expressed is the amount of deficit Hungary possesses. Germany is by far Hungary's most compatible trading partner. It is necessary that the Hungarian government pass several reforms to keep Hungary's economy on the rise.

Queen Victoria's View on England during the Victorian Era

I am quite sad regarding my country at the moment. The newspapers have been calling this new era the "Victorian Era". While I should be flattered, I find myself sad. This era has brought nothing but trouble into my life. I was much happier during the Regency period. Britain has become much more Democratic during this time. I am proud of the Reform Bill of 1832, which has allowed more people to vote. I am also proud to state that this time period is the most prosperous period of British history. There is tremendous economic growth and lots of free trade. These are great reforms for my country, but my personal life has been in shambles. I have isolated myself from the rest of the world in order to properly mourn the death of my husband. So, I have left England at the mercy of two alternating Prime Ministers: Gladstone and Disraeli. I am very fond of the tory Disraeli and his Big England Policy, but I cannot stand the whig Gladstone and his Little England policy. I hope Disraeli will be more popular with the English people, as well. He will do great things for this country, including the expansion of our borders.

A Native African's View on the Partition of Africa

The Partition of Africa by the European countries is outrageous and infuriating. My fellows tribesmen have lived on this continent, following our own customs, for centuries. Who do the Europeans think they are to come and tell me that I am uncivilized because of my traditions? The African tribes have learned how to survive in this land. I am positive that the imperialists would not last long in Africa before dying from disease or getting eaten by wild animals. The Swahili city-states, strongholds of technology and wealth, have recently been destroyed by imperialists. There is virtually nothing left of these great cities; it is a absolute tragedy. Although the evil destroyers soon died from malaria, nothing will ever bring back the treasures that were lost in the Swahili city-states. I have gotten word that the Europeans have met at a Berlin Conference to "divide" Africa among themselves. It seems quite horrific to me that they think they've the right to do this. There were zero African delegates at the conference. From what I have heard, the countries of Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Belgium, and Spain were present at this meeting. These countries are now going to try to impose their languages, religions, and customs on the native people of Africa.

A Middle Class Woman's View on the Changing Family in the 1800s

Many changes have taken place when it comes to love and marriage. It seems as though marrying for convenience has been overtaken by marrying for love. Premarital sex has greatly increased. As a result, the births of illegitimate children has also increased - however after 1850 it started decreasing again. This shows that the working classes have finally gained some sort of intelligence. However the men in this society have not made so much progress. So many young men have turned to prostitution! This has led to increased sexism. Thus, many women have stopped working outside the home - that is except for all those lower class women. The rest of the female population has returned to the home to rear her children. After a while these women became tired of being inferior. They started to fight for their rights!
--from the diary of a middle class woman

Science and Thought

During this time in history scientific thought began to yield beneficial change in society. In other words, theoretical knowledge began to be applied in everyday uses. Louis Pasteur and his process of Pasteurizing milk is a prime example of this shift in modes. Even while practical applications were being developed, however, theory was still advancing at a rapid pace. the Law of Conservation of Energy - stating that energy can neither be created nor destroyed - proved to people that the world is government by strict unchanging laws. Even the process of systematic research and development (R&D) was developed at this time. In the end, science began to triumph over religion as reason began to replace faith.
Social Scientists, such as Marx, began to study society as a whole from children to crime rates. Everything was represented statistically and analysts spent a good portion of their lives study trends. One significant analyst was Auguste Comte. Comte noted that explanation of things, such as cosmic patterns, shifted from theological (will of God) to metaphysical (orderly nature) to scientific (unchanging laws). His method of reason was known as the Positivist Method, more commonly known as the Scientific Method. During this time Darwin also published his thesis On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection. This document led to great outrage, and also to the concept of Social Darwinism.
The triumph of science also led to the Realist literary movement. In Realism authors strove to depict things as they were in real life without mixing in romanticized views and only using hard science. The pioneer of this movement was Emile Zola with her literary manifesto.

Metternich's View of Conservatism

Hello, I am Prince Klemens von Metternich. I am a wealthy aristocrat from Austria. My position is the Austrian foreign minister. You've probably heard of me, because I led the Congress of Vienna. I would like to state precisely why I support Conservatism. First, tradition is extremely important and I strongly believe in the ideals of the monarchy and nobility. There are many problems in the world today that have started with the lower classes. In my opinion, all of these problems were promoted because of liberalism. I fear that liberalism will cause a great war and ultimately lead to the breakup of Austria-Hungary. To prevent liberalism from spreading, I have created the Holy Alliance, which will monitor any liberal or radical ideas. I've also established the Carlsbad Decrees, which intervene and repress ath any sign of liberalism. I firmly stand by my belief that tradition (and conservatism) will keep peace throughout Europe. Conservatism is practical because it favors obedience to political authority. Another main tenet of this ideology is the belief that organized religion is crucial to the order of a society. In conclusion, conservatism is by far the best ideology because it allows countries to remain peaceful. The only thing a radical idea does is stir up trouble.
Sincerely,
Prince Klemens von Metternich
(an aristocrat)

Austria-Hungary's thoughts on Russia

During the time of the French Revolution and the Congress of Vienna, Austria was distraught over Russia's influence in Poland (Grand Duchy), Central Europe, and Prussia. During the debates in the C.O.V., Russia was Austria's main rival in negoatiations. Russia's strength seemed to grow over the years and the balance of power was tipping gradually in their general direction. Austria-Hungary felt weak in comparison. Furthermore, Russia had somewhat of an influence over King Frederick William III, king of Prussia. Prussia was somewhat of a buffer state between Austria-Hungary and Russia.

Britain's Impact on Austria during Napoleonic Era

The British and Austrian soldiers fought together to try to save the Netherlands from falling under Napoleon's rule. Prussia, Spain, and most of the German states had all backed down from this endeavor. These two countries were prominent members of the Second and Third Coalitions against the French Empire. Overall, Britain and Austria rarely came into close contact with each other on the battlefield. They were both devoutly against Napoleon and his troops, but were often involved in different battles. For instance, Austria was not a main contender at the Battle of Waterloo, while Britain played a major role in it. On the other hand, Austria fought against Napoleon in his invasion of Russia, but Great Britain was not involved at all. At the Congress of Vienna, Metternich of Austria was the host to other statesmen including Castlereagh of Britain. Both countries came out of the wars with nationalism and power.

Prussian Impact on Austria

The major source of friction between Austria/Hungary and Prussia was the establishment of the German Confederation. While Prussia wanted a weak Austro-German alliance, the Austrians wanted to rule Germany on their own. Eventaully, the Austrians got their way and a weak Austrian-led German Confederation was formed. Austria was mostly concerned about the Russian effect on Prussia, while Prussia was worried more about the Confederation itself rather than other parties.

Austria and the French Revolution

As the French Revolution began, French nobility fled their tumultuous homeland. Most of this nobility, known as emigres, went to live in Austria. Furthermore, they prompted Austria to put an end to the revolution at home. Thus, Austria signed the Declaration of Pillnitz in 1791. It stated that if other nations were to invade France that Austria would help these other nations. France, seeing Austria's move as obvious opposition, took the declaration as a sort of declaration of war. Prussia allied with Austria in their quest for a balance of power against Napoleon and his empire.

Napoleon's Impact on Austria

Napoleon had an enormous impact on the Austrian region. In his early years, Napoleon fought and defeated four Austrian armies in a row. He seemed unbeatable and consistently forced the country into submission. Napoleon's offensive campaign on Austria was his first important task as an influential, international figure. Napoleon won all of the battles and Austria always surrendered. In a peace treaty, it was negotiated that Austria would give up the Austrian Netherlands and Lombardy. France, out of pity, gave Austria much land in the Venetian area. While Napoleon's armies were in Austria, they pillaged and stole all the money and valuable goods they could find. This looting left a great deal of Austrian citizens in ruin. Later on, Austria faced Napoleon in several other battles, usually in alliance with Russia and other world powers. The Austrian armies actually played a role in the defeat of Napoleon! Another way that Napoleon influenced Austria was that he married Marie Louise, the daughter of the emperor. Since Napoleon was desperate for a true heir, he divorced Josephine and married Marie Louise. She had a son, and Napoleon declared that his son would be called the "King of Rome".

Even More Chapter Summary (645-655)

In the 18th century, Austria-Hungary along with the rest of Europe experienced a growth in world trade.
The War of Austrian Succession took place from 1740 to 1748. During this time, Frederick the Great of Prussia took over Silesia from Maria Theresa (Maria Antoinette's mother). The conflict blew up into a giant war. During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Maria Theresa tried to win back her stolen territory but was unsuccessful.
While Britain prospered tremendously, the rest of Europe hurried to catch up. European states, including Austria-Hungary attempted to implement a cottage industry, mercantilism, and protectionism. To accomplish this, A-H took part in the African slave trade.

More Chapter Summary

pgs 629-637

The area of Austria-Hungary was extremely agrarian. During the 16th and 17th centuries, there was widespread famine and disaster in the farming regions. Approximately every 8-9 years, the harvests would fail altogether. Many people went starving and were forced to eat famine foods, such as bark and grass, just to survive. The farming techniques of Medieval Times were utilized.
The open-field system, a middle age technique, was probably the most commonly used farming system at this time. Although it definitely helped the peasants cultivate crops in these tough times, the problem of exhausting the soil arose. Villages set aside meadows called common lands where animals could graze and not have to work in the fields. To make matters worse than they already were, the nobles and heads-of-state heavily taxed the poor people of Austria-Hungary. The serfs, especially, were treated cruelly and unfairly because there were no existing laws that defined how long a person could legally work. Therefore, the landlords demanded that their serfs work for extremely long periods of time.
It was nearly impossibly for peasants and serfs to rise up in social class. Technology advancements were desperately needed, because individuals began to realize that too many people were poor and starving. The result was the agricultural revolution. Crop rotations became more advanced and useful. The effect of these rotations was that the soil did not become exhausted as frequently as it had in the past. The practice of enclosure was also invented. In conclusion, the agricultural revolution bettered the lives of countless amounts of farmers living in Austria-Hungary. The age of suffering and hardship turned into a time of relative prosperity for these people.

Chapter Summary pgs 673 - 684

One of the major differences to impact the rich and poor were diets. Because the poor could not afford meat, they had to rely on bran in bread to provide them with protein. However, deficiencies in Vitamin C caused scurvy in many people. The rich, however, gorged themselves on meat, candy, and spirits. They were overfed and under exercised and often suffered from Gout. Though medicine did not play a significant role in society, the slow emergence of doctors began during this time. Early, strange practices for dealing with nutrition problems also arose, such as Purging.
Surgeons also began to rise, especially on the medieval battlefield. However, without anesthetics surgery was a very dreadful procedure to undergo. Even the simplest treatments, due to the poor hygiene and procedures, could cause the patient to die of infection or blood loss. Patients were not separated, and fresh air was viewed as a bad thing. Conditions were so bad that many viewed them as a plot at population control.
Despite the rampant spread of Enlightened thinking, many people still remained loyal to the Catholic church. However, many educated elites began to attack and denounce religious practices as unreasonable, foolish, and superstitious. Despite these attacks, religion was tightly woven into the fabric of community life. Protestants were also extremely active at this time, trying to reclaim the core values of Christianity.